Introduction

 

With digital technologies giving us access to nearly limitless amounts of information, the information landscape has changed in significant ways. While the process of information seeking has increased significantly in complexity, some features of the process that have stayed the same. Despite the promise that unlimited amounts of information offer knowledge to everyone, the overwhelming amount of information can act as a barrier to access. Now flexible and evolving research skills are necessary to seek reliable information and to filter out unnecessary information. In the context of a school, the teacher librarian can guide members of the learning community in building information literacy skills.

 

Search Processes

 

Kuhlthau’s Information Search Process [ISP] (Kuhlthau, Caspari & Maniotes, 2015, p. 46) model explains stages in a process a student goes through to build knowledge on a topic. The impetus to seek information is prompted by a feeling of uncertainty when the learner sees a gap in his or her knowledge (Case, 2006, pp. 74-75). Kuhlthau’s ISP model was originally developed in the 1980s (Kuhlthau et al., 2015, p.46). Despite significant changes in the form, quantity, and accessibility of information, the ISP remains an established model for information seeking. While originally developed from observations of students conducting research, the ISP has been shown to apply to the process of information-seeking in many different contexts (Kuhlthau et al., 2015, p. 46; Bawden & Robinson, 2012, p. 197).

 

Kuhlthau’s (Kuhlthau et al., 2015, p. 47) ISP model describes eight stages in the information search process: initiation, selection, exploration, formulation, collection, presentation, and assessment. Each of these stages has an associated feeling, thought and action. For example, at the initiation stage, the feeling is uncertain, the thoughts on the topic are vague and the action is seeking information (p. 47).

 

Beheshti, Cole, Abuhimed, and Lamaureax (2015) applied Kuhlthau’s ISP model to observe middle school students completing a research project. A significant finding in the study was the importance of consultations in moving students students from one stage to the next in the process (Beheshti et al., 2015, p. 957). Beheshti et al. observed that at certain points during the search process students would seek assistance from others including classmates, family members and teachers in order to help them move on with their research (Beheshti et al., 2015, p. 957). This human connection in information seeking is seen in many contexts by a variety of information-seekers to aid them in the construction of new information.

 

Another useful way to conceive of the search for information is the “Sense-Making” model of Dervin. Instead of looking at the more formal research side of information-seeking, Dervin looked at how people seek information in the their daily lives (Case, 2006, p. 75). The information seeker formulates questions and seeks help to satisfy her information needs (Case, 2006, p. 75). In both Dervin and Kuhlthau’s models the feelings of the information seeker are central, propelling the learner through the process in order to satisfy the feelings of uncertainty. A notable feature of Dervin’s model is the emphasis on communication in satisfying people’s information needs (Case, 2006, p. 75). The importance of consultation with others in Beheshti el al.’s study echoes this theme.

 

Searching for Knowledge, or Just a Quick Fix?

 

In his keynote address at the “Future of the Profession” summit for the Australian Library and Information Association [ALIA], Mark Pesce defined the current state of information availability as a dream come true because of the ease of access that so many have to information through mobile devices (ALIA, 2013, p.16). Pesce calls this a “new culture of shared knowledge” (ALIA, 2013, p.16). However the concept of the “digital divide” has raised questions of whether everyone has access to this information.

 

In the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions [IFLA] trend report, “Riding the Waves of Caught in the Tide? Navigating the Evolving Information Environment” (2013) five key trends are highlighted which affect the information environment (p. 4). The first of these trends is, “New technologies will both expand and limit who has access to information” (IFLA, 2013, p. 4). The report explains that, despite the abundance of digital content and information and the ubiquity of devices for accessing this information, those who are not skilled at navigating this complex information landscape are at a disadvantage in the information economy. The phrase “digital divide” can be used to describe the gap in skill level between those who have information literacy skills and those who do not (IFLA, 2013, p. 10). Referring back to Pesce’s speech one can see that not everyone has the information literacy skills necessary to allow them to access this “new culture of shared knowledge” (ALIA, 2013, p. 16). Without guidance or the advantage of the human connection prioritized by Kuhlthau and Dervin the proliferation of information can become a barrier to knowledge.

 

In a school context the teacher librarian can build the bridge to this new culture of shared knowledge. Like the IFLA report, Joyce Valenza (2010) speaks of “a new digital divide” that separates “… those who can effectively find quality information in all media formats and those who cannot” (section 5, point 1). Valenza lists many ways the teacher librarian can help level the playing field for both students and teachers to allow them to be successful. To allow students access and guidance she states the teacher librarian should “organize the Web for learners,” by collecting “resources to meet the specific information needs of your community” including pathfinders to support student research and learning (Valenza, 2010, section 3). 

 

Shenton (2007) identifies ten paradoxes in “The Paradoxical World of Young People’s Information Behavior.” In paradox four Shenton describes the lack of sophistication in search practices used by young people in which they “frequently follow a basic formula action when finding and using information” (2007, p.6) Research by Graef (2000) confirms this paradox: “In an age in which the world of information is expanding and increasing in complexity, users’ conceptual tools for dealing with it are becoming simplified” (quoted in Shenton, 2007, p.5). While best research practice requires a complex and multidirectional process of searching, checking authority, reading and note-taking followed by synthesizing and reporting, Shenton claims that students prefer to follow a “quick and dirty” basic search with little critical thought (Shenton, 2007, p. 5). A concern voiced by Shenton is if these basic search processes are habitually used by students they will never reach to the deeper and more authoritative knowledge that is only accessible through thorough research and reflection (Shenton, 2007, p.5-6).

 

This concern in the quality of information returned by a search is also raised in the IFLA Trend Report (2013, p.6). With automated search technologies limiting the parameters of users’ searches based upon previous search habits, the depth and breadth of a search are compromised (IFLA, 2013, p.6). The report asks, “How can libraries and educators ensure students and users are accessing the information they need, and not simply the information their amalgamated data tells the algorithm they’re looking for?” (IFLA, 2013, p. 6).

 

Others have criticised the quality of search habits not only of students but also of adults. In “Google Makes Us All Dumber: The Neuroscience of Search Engines,” Ian Leslie (2014) asserts that the ease with which people can find information on browsers such as Google makes information seekers lazy. Having quick access to answers makes people impatient for information and thus less thoughtful when posing questions and less critical of the answers that instantaneously appear (Leslie, 2014, para. 4, para. 8). While there is no substantiated evidence that using search engines does actually decrease intelligence, the ease of finding information may lead students to be less thoughtful when encountering information online than in other contexts (DeBruyckere, Kirschner, & Hulshof, 2016, p. 16). 

 

Zipf’s law of least effort (Bawden & Robinson, 2012) describes the information-seeking behaviors noted by Shenton, the IFLA trend report, Leslie, and others. In Zipf’s law of least effort, information seekers prioritize familiar sources and ease of access, even when they are aware that there are other better quality options available (Bawden & Robinson, 2012, p. 204). 

 

In his conclusion Shenton (2007) voices a final concern: while high importance has been placed on creating information-literate students, the training of teachers in information literacy is neglected (p.14). If teachers are to be modeling and guiding students in their information seeking behaviors then more importance needs to be focused on building teachers’ information literacy. Schools are in the position to educate not only students but also teachers and staff on ways to effectively seek information in the changing information landscape. Looking through the lense of an “information ecology” one can see how an effective teacher librarian can be an agent of change. 

 

The School as an Information Ecology

 

An “information ecology” is defined by Nardi and O’Day (2000) as “a system of people, technologies, practices and values in a local setting” (p. 36). Nardi promotes the metaphor of information ecology to help us pay attention not just to the technology, but to the community (or ecology) around it. Nardi describes four characteristics of natural ecologies that are pertinent to the information ecology: diversity, locality, Keystone species, and co-evolution (2000, pp. 37-38). Diversity describes the variety in users of technology, the variety of technology tools, and the variety of ways for these tools to be used. As in a biological ecosystem, diversity is a feature of a healthy ecosystem to be protected and valued. Locality calls attention to the unique characteristics of place. Before any technology practice or tool is adopted the practices, needs and values of the local community need to be considered. Keystone species refer to those elements of an ecology that are essential to the healthy functioning and stability of the whole system. In a school community this role would include teacher librarians in the ways they bring together people and technologies and are adaptable in order to anticipate and meet needs as they arise. Co-evolution describes the way changes in one part of the information ecosystem affect other parts of the system. No person or tool works in a vacuum, each part of the system has the potential to affect others in the system. Acknowledging these features of and making them part of the conversation when making decisions about technology keeps the information ecology healthy.

 

Perrault (2007) takes the information ecology metaphor to consider how technological innovation can take place in a school context in “The School as an Information Ecology.” Perrault specifically looks at the information-seeking behaviors of teachers, who are often caught in the tension between having too many resources and not enough time to find the best ones. Perrault defines information literacy skills as, “the ability to access, evaluate, and use information from multiple sources” and teachers must have mastery over these skills to be able to find what they need. An important consequence of a teacher with advanced information-seeking skills is that they can not only source superior material for lessons, but also that they can act as mentors and models for students in information seeking practices (Perrault, 2007, p. 53). 

 

Through the information ecology one can understand how individuals build their “personal information infrastructures,” which are the means by which people seek and use information (Perrault, 2007, p. 55). Perrault argues that an innovator (the teacher librarian or other) can positively affect the information ecology by “fostering a culture of advanced information-seeking practices” (2007, p. 55). Members of the information ecology will expand their personal information infrastructures through the quality and number of information encounters in which they participate (Perrault, 2007, p. 55). In Perrault’s proposal for a way to foster advances in information-seeking behaviors in a school information ecosystem we can see examples of the teacher librarian acting as a Keystone species in order to impart co-evolution.

 

The Value of the Teacher Librarian

 

In “School Libraries as Pedagogical Centres,” Todd (2012) looks to high-performing school libraries in New Jersey (USA) to highlight the most important features of school libraries. The three features of high-functioning school libraries and librarians are: school librarians as co-teachers, school libraries as centres for inquiry-based learning, and school libraries as innovative centres for professional development and continuous learning (Todd, 2012, pp. 35-36). In this model we can see how the teacher librarian is a Keystone species by partnering with teachers and as a guide for professional learning. The professional development offered by the teacher librarian was seen by school leaders and by teachers as the most effective model of professional development in both quality and perceived value (Todd, 2012, pp. 35). Drawing back to the information ecology model, the high impact of teacher librarian-led professional development rests on the teacher librarian’s local knowledge and on the ability of learners to co-evolve within their own information ecosystem. Specifically named benefits by teachers receiving professional development from teacher librarians were those that supported the teachers’ knowledge structures, or personal information infrastructures (Todd, 2012, p. 35).

 

Valenza (2010) also highlights the importance of the teacher librarian in the information ecosystem of the school. Her suggestions for scaffolding information resources extend to all members of the community. For teachers she advocates making “learning sense” of new information and tools before promoting them, and then helping teachers to use them effectively with students (2010, section 8, point 3). Additionally Valenza advocates advising teachers on setting up their own personal learning networks (2010, section 11, point 3). 

 

Due to the diversity of users in the information ecology, the teacher librarian can employ different methods of sharing information to satisfy a variety of learners. In “Teacher Librarians and the School Library,” Herring suggests teacher librarians take the the proactive approach of Selective Dissemination of Information [SDI]. In SDI, the teacher librarian is familiar with the current topics in different classes and keeps abreast of related recent developments in knowledge or technology tools (Herring, 2007, p. 38). When relevant information or useful tools arise relating to curriculum goals in the school environment, the teacher librarian disseminates this information to teachers for use in building background information and planning learning experiences. This information can be shared in face-to-face meetings, by email, or through an online tool or site. Another method for supporting the school community’s information needs is the school website. Valenza calls school’s website “the second front door” of the school library (Herring, 2007, p. 39). An effective website highlights important resources and tools, and channels users towards the library resources that will help them most in information seeking. 

When a school is viewed as an information ecology and positive co-evolution takes place through the efforts of teacher librarians and other change agents, what Pesce termed “a culture of shared knowledge” can develop (ALIA, 2013, p. 16). In this environment the teacher librarian changes from a keeper of information to a “generator of value.” Pesce states the value of the librarian is to act as an intelligent filter and problem-solver when it comes to assisting people with information seeking (ALIA, 2013, p. 16). The human connection provided by the teacher librarian plays an even more essential role in information seeking in today’s vast and complex information landscape.

 

Conclusion

 

Although there have been significant changes in the information landscape, the behavior of information seekers has not changed significantly. Information seekers tend to seek personal connection and ease. With more information available than ever before, the volume of information can act as a barrier to those who are not skilled in information literacy. The phrase “digital divide” describes the difference between those who know how to effectively access the information they need and those who are not able to do this. By looking at a school as an information ecology one can see how change agents like the teacher librarian can build the information literacy skills of all members of the community.

 

References

 

Australian Library and Information Association. (2014, April). Future of the library and information science profession [Report]. Retrieved from https://www-alia-org-au.ezproxy.csu.edu.au/sites/default/files/ALIA-Future-of-the-LIS-Profession-01_0.pdf

 

Bawden, D. & Robinson, L. (2012). Information behaviour. In Introduction to information science (pp. 187-210). London: Facet.

 

Beheshti, J., Cole, C., Abuhimed, D., & Lamoureux, I. (2015). Tracking middle school students’ information behavior via Kuhlthau’s ISP Model: Temporality. Journal of the Association for Information Science & Technology, 66(5), 943-960. doi:10.1002/asi.23230

 

Case, D. O. (2006). Information needs and information seeking. In Looking for information: a survey of research on information seeking, needs, and behavior, 2nd edition (pp. 68-84). Emerald Publishing Limited. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.csu.edu.au

 

De Bruyckere, P., Kirschner, P. A., & Hulshof, C. D. (2016). Technology in education: What teachers should know. American Educator, 40(1), 12–18.

 

Graef, R. (2000, July 23). The illusion of information. BBC Radio 4.

 

Herring, J. (2007). Teacher librarians and the school library. In S. Ferguson (Ed.), Libraries in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 27–42). Chandos Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-876938-43-7.50002-8

 

IFLA Trend Report. (2014). Riding the waves or caught in the tide? Navigating the evolving information environment: Insights from the IFLA Trend Report. Retrieved from https://trends-ifla-org.ezproxy.csu.edu.au/insights-document

 

Kuhlthau, C. C., Caspari, A. K., & Maniotes, L. K. (2015). Guided inquiry: Learning in the 21st century, 2nd edition. Santa Barbara, California: Libraries Unlimited.

 

Leslie, Ian. (2014, October 12). Google makes us all dumber: The neuroscience of search engines. Salon.com. Retrieved August 16, 2018, from https://www.salon.com/2014/10/12/google_makes_us_all_dumber_the_neuroscience_of_search_engines/

 

O’day, V. L. (2000). Information ecologies. Serials Librarian, 38(1–2), 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1300/J123v38n01_05

 

Perrault, A. M. (2007). The school as an information ecology: A framework for studying changes in information use. School Libraries Worldwide, 13(2), 49-62.

Shenton, A. K. (2007). The paradoxical world of young people’s information behavior. School Libraries Worldwide, 13(2), 1-17. 

 

Todd, R. J. (2012) School libraries as pedagogical centers. SCAN, 31(3), 27-36.

 

Valenza, J. (2010, December 3). A revised manifesto. In Neverending Search. Retrieved from http://blogs.slj.com/neverendingsearch/2010/12/03/a-revised-manifesto/