Blog Post 1: Duolingo 

Digital literature is generally agreed to encompass any narrative or poetic form using the specific characteristics of a computer device. In this definition, we can include apps and other learning resources (NSW Government: Education, 2022) as the digital form means that the narrative can be created by the user being guided through the learning space, and these depend on an electronic code to exist. They are not printable. None of the definitions for digital literature specify whether this narrative needs to be fictional or non-fictional, and indeed, there seems to be a blend in definitions between ‘multi-modal texts’ and ‘digital texts’. We can imagine these terms will continue to blur as technology progresses. As such, it is questionable whether it is ethical or relevant to compare such texts to literary and/or historical standards, especially when we look at what is the motivation behind making our words digital or not.  

School libraries could benefit language courses by supplying a range of materials to aid study (Vuzo, 2022).  Online resources have increased access to learning materials beyond the audio library of a school’s language department, often for free or at reduced rates. The low price of Duolingo is extremely competitive in comparison to purchasing popular new books in languages other than English which can be prohibitively expensive (Murphy, 2018). Duolingo offers a selection of 37 languages, including specialized courses like English for Arabic speakers with the aim to cater to learners both seeking to acquire a new language and those looking to reinforce their previous studies. Users can freely switch between different languages without any restrictions. Duolingo offers a sequential list of modules, each dedicated to specific topics such as grammar or themes. Within each module, there are multiple lessons, where a certain number of lessons must be completed to unlock the next set of modules. On average, each lesson takes about three to four minutes to finish. Lessons are largely drill activities presented by characters with little explicit grammar.  

The learning process mostly follows a chronological order, and offers the flexibility to revisit and redo previously completed lessons. This approach prevents skipping ahead to more challenging content before the user is ready. Earlier learned words and concepts resurface as the user progresses, while new words are highlighted. There is a placement test to make sure the lessons challenge the user, this and the app’s use of data created through its own users ensure that the Zone of Proximal Development is accurate (Levy Vygotsky, 1978). 

Lessons are based on reading to learn but in small chunks, which is based on Gough’s data driven model (Bruning et al, 1996) where letter by letter ,word by word analysis of the text leads to the understanding of the language’s structure. The lack of overt teaching of grammar and vocabulary encourages the student to use both contextual knowledge and definitional knowledge (Bruning et al, 1996.) The design of Duolingo is based on the theory of the spacing effect (Ebbinghaus, 1885) where shorter practices are encouraged over cramming. 

According to Reinders & Wattana’s research in 2015, digital games have the potential to reduce the emotional barriers and foster communication in second language (L2) classrooms. Their study of students with an online role-playing game named Ragnarok found that willingness to communicate (WTC) improved with game integration. Duolingo gives constant feedback, progress tracking along with rewards and scores to keep users motivated along with notifications. Leaderboards create the sense of competition. However, Duolingo is not a full-scale language-learning program. It does not have the content or diversity demanded by one. Worldwide, there is a consensus that students should engage in extensive reading of captivating texts to enhance their vocabulary, spelling, reading skills, and overall linguistic proficiency (Singkum & Chinwonno, 2021). The focus is on the production of structurally accurate sentences, as vocabulary sometimes feels randomly generated and at times it is impossible to rely on context for understanding. This means that it does sometimes have some very weird sentences which might confuse users such as: ‘The cows washed the dishes last night.’  

Duolingo’s lessons depend on the user working with translation of L1 to L2 and vice versa. Translation has been considered old-fashioned in a language class for decades. Academics have failed to conclude if it hinders the development of fluency and inhibits communicative language usage (Newson, 1998) or if it can be beneficial to language learning when used considerately. Uzawa’s (1996) study shows that students are more likely to adopt an ‘accurate by accurate sentence when involved in a translation activity. Yet the purpose of the grammar translation method was to help students read and understand foreign language literature (Larsen-Freeman, 2000) rather than fluency.  

Duolingo could be improved by more lengthy conversations for the user to work with. A chat AI feature could allow Duolingo to respond to the users’ language, as the user currently is always reproducing language with the structure and words that Duo gives. The user is never having to produce language as spontaneously as one would in a conversation. 

Word count: 839 

References: 

Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G. J., Ronning, R. R (1996) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Third Edition. Macmillan. 

Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. New York: Dover.  

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Second Edition. Oxford University Press.  

Murphy, P. H. (2018). School Libraries Addressing the Needs of ELL Students: Enhancing Language Acquisition, Confidence and Cultural Fluency in ELL Students by Developing a Targeted Collection and Enriching Your Makerspace. Knowledge Quest 46 (4). Accessed on 06 August, 2023 from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1171688  

Newson, D. (1988). Making the best of a bad job: The teaching and testing of translation. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Association for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language. Edinburgh, Scotland. Accessed on 06 August, 2023 from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Making-the-Best-of-a-Bad-Job%3A-The-Teaching-and-of-Newson/c583b14375acb1f54803136e24358a6330d3e8fd 

Reinders, H. & Wattana, S. (2015). Affect and willingness to communicate in digital game-based learning. ReCALL, 27, (1) pp 38-57. Accessed on 02 August, 2023 from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272004822_Affect_and_willingness_to_communicate_in_digital_game-based_learning 

Singkum, R. & Chinwonno, A. (2021). Implementing EFL Extensive Reading for Thai Vocational Students. Learn Journal: Language and Acquisition Research Network. Accessed on 02 August, 2023 from https://so04.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/LEARN/article/view/248690 

Uzawa, K. (1996). Second Language Learner’s Processes of L1 Writing, L2 Writing and Translation from L1 to L2. The Journal of Second Language Writing. 5 (3) pp 271-294 Accessed on 06 August, 2023 from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1060374396900053 

Vuzo, M. (2022). The Role of School Libraries in Enhancing Extensive English Language Reading Skills. University of Dar es Salaam Library Journal, 17 (2) pp 171-181. Accessed on 06 August, 2023 from ajol-file-journals_164_articles_240001_submission_proof_240001-1957-578212-1-10-20230118 (2) 

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.